The Old and New Testament? -
And for this cause he is the
mediator of the new testament, that by means of death, for the redemption of
the transgressions that were under the first testament, they which are called
might receive the promise of eternal inheritance. Hebrews 9:15 (KJV)
The word
testament here translates the Greek διαθήκη (diathēkē), which primarily means
covenant rather than a will (though the author later draws on the “will”
metaphor in vv. 16–17).
For this reason he is the mediator of a new
covenant, so that those who are called may receive the promised eternal
inheritance, Heb 9:15 (NRSV)
The separation
of the Old Testament and New Testament significantly influenced the
translation of scripture in several key ways:
• Translators
had to bridge the linguistic gap, sometimes struggling to maintain consistency
in theological terms between the two.
• The Old
Testament relied on the Masoretic Text (Hebrew) and Septuagint (Greek
translation), leading to differences in wording and meaning.
• The New
Testament, written in Greek, often quoted the Old Testament from the
Septuagint, sometimes differing from the Hebrew source.
• The
separation led to debates about how to interpret the Old Testament in light of
Christ’s teachings.
• Some
translations reflect Christian theological biases, adjusting Old Testament
wording to fit Christological interpretations.
• Some
translators tried to make language and style more cohesive across both
Testaments, while others maintained the distinct literary characteristics of
each.
• Christian
translations often highlight messianic prophecies in the Old Testament more
than Jewish translations do.
• Some
translations attempt harmonization, ensuring that Old Testament references
align with New Testament citations.
The introduction
of chapters and verses in scripture had a profound impact on translation,
interpretation, and the way people engage with the Bible.
• Interruption
of Natural Flow: Biblical texts were originally written in continuous prose or
poetic lines, without divisions. The addition of chapters (13th century) and
verses (16th century) sometimes broke sentences unnaturally.
• Shifts
in Translation Choices: Translators often had to adapt wording to fit
artificial breaks, affecting readability and coherence.
• Some
verse divisions emphasized certain theological points while de-emphasizing
others.
• Example:
Isaiah 53 (a key messianic prophecy in Christianity) is separated from Isaiah
52, potentially obscuring its original context.
• Easier
cross-referencing between Old and New Testaments made it simpler to connect
prophecies, doctrines, and teachings.
• However,
some references became misleading due to divisions that altered context.
• It led
to "prooftexting", where isolated verses are quoted without context
to support particular views.
• Example:
Jeremiah 29:11 (“For I know the plans I have for you…”) is often quoted as a
personal promise, but in context, it refers to Israel’s exile in Babylon.
The
Latin Vulgate,
translated by St. Jerome in the late 4th century, had a massive influence on
the translation of Scripture, shaping both medieval and modern translations.
•
Jerome’s
Vulgate became the official Bible of the Western Church for over 1,000 years,
meaning most later translations were influenced by it.
·
Jerome
made interpretative choices that affected theology.
·
Jerome
translated Hebrew words into Latin in a way that shaped later theology:
·
“Poenitentiam
agite” (Matthew 3:2) – translated as “Do penance” instead of “Repent,” influencing Catholic sacramental theology.
·
“Testamentum”
for “covenant” shaped legal and theological discussions on the Old and New
Testaments.
•
The
Vulgate’s Latin phrasing shaped theological and liturgical language in the
Western Church.
The application of "Testament"
The word
testament comes from the Latin word testamentum, which is a translation
of the Greek word διαθήκη (diathēkē), meaning covenant. This reflects a
legal agreement or will, but in the biblical context, it primarily means a
divine covenant between God and people.
·
In Jeremiah 31:31–34, the prophet speaks of a
new covenant that God will make with Israel.
· The
term Old Testament as a name for the Hebrew Scriptures emerged in Christian
usage, particularly by the 2nd century CE.
· Melito
of Sardis (late 2nd century) is credited as one of the first known Christians
to use the phrase "Old Testament" to describe the Jewish scriptures.
· The
terms became widely used by Latin-speaking Christians. In Latin translations
(like the Vulgate), the terms "Vetus Testamentum" (Old Testament) and
"Novum Testamentum" (New Testament) were standard.
Covenants
- The first covenant referred
to the one which God made exclusively with Israel at Mount Sinai.
·
The new covenant is universal and timeless. It
began at the death of Jesus and became of full force with the destruction of
the temple circa 70 CE, .
The Transition – The Last
days
According to Peter and James,
believing Gentiles were not required to submit to the Law of Moses. They were
not included in the covenant confirmed at Sinai. Jews were required to observe
ceremonies and regulations of the Law. For the Jews, the temple represented the
presence of God on earth.
Children of Abraham
Paul asserted that believers are
the children of Abraham by faith having nothing to do with the Law since it
came some four hundred years after he received the promise from God. The
covenant God made with Abrham predated the covenant made with Israel at Sinai
which was exclusive to Israel.
The Scriptures
The scriptures begin with creation and continue into the
last days of the Jewish age – the destruction of the temple and Jerusalem was
the end of God’s relationship with Israel; it was end of the Law of Moses and the end the first
covenant.
Are the scriptures the “word
of God”?
No! But they contain words of God. “The word
of the Lord…” “The word of God…” The Lord spoke…” “The Lord said…” These phrases
indicate an author’s reference to God speaking. Hebrews points out that God
used prophets to communicate his words to Israel. In the last days of Israel God
spoke through his Son. John pointed out that Jesus was the Word. Religious
rituals and practices during the last days of Israel did not represent God’s
word. Historic events are not God’s word.
Each
individual scripture has its own significance and most are thematically
connected. The interpretation of one
must be consistent with others dealing with the same subject. Scriptures were
written by different people over a spam of fifteen hundred years. All
scriptures were written by Jews for Jews, with one possible exception – Luke.
1. Creation the Beginning
Genesis 1:1
In the beginning when God created the heavens and the
earth...
This was the starting point of
God's interaction with humanity.
Abraham
Abraham stands out a man of faith. God assigned
righteousness to Abraham based on his faith. The apostle Paul linked the
spiritual heritage of those who believed in Jesus to Abraham the father of the
faithful.
2. The Law of Moses and the
First Covenant
Exodus 24:7, 8
Then he took the book of the
covenant and read it in the hearing of the people; and they said, “All that the
LORD has spoken we will do, and we will be obedient.” So, Moses took the blood
and dashed it on the people, and said, “See the blood of the covenant that the
LORD has made with you in accordance with all these words.”
Deuteronomy 5:2, 3
The Lord our God made a covenant with us at Horeb. Not with
our ancestors did the Lord make this covenant, but with us, who are all of us
here alive today.
God’s exclusive covenant with
Israel.
3. Prediction of change
Jeremiah 31: 34
No longer
shall they teach one another, or say to each other, 'Know the LORD', for they
shall all know me, from the least of them to the greatest, says the LORD; for I
will forgive their iniquity, and remember their sin no more.
Heb 10:1
Since the
law has only a shadow of the good things to come and not the true form of these
realities, it can never, by the same sacrifices that are continually offered
year after year, make perfect those who approach.
Heb 1:1, 2
Long ago
God spoke to our ancestors in many and various ways by the prophets, but
in these last days he has spoken to us by a Son, whom he appointed heir of all
things, through whom he also created the worlds.
Gal 3:24, 25
Therefore
the law was our disciplinarian until Christ came, so that we might be justified
by faith. But now that faith has come, we are no longer subject to a
disciplinarian,
John wrote “The
law indeed was given through Moses; grace and truth came through Jesus Christ.”
The first covenant and Law of Moses were in effect until the destruction of the
temple. At that time the relationship with God changed from law to grace, from
rituals and sacrifices to grace, and from institutional to personal.
4. Jesus Predicted the End of
the Temple and Jewish Age
Matthew 24:1-3
Jesus left the temple and was
going away when his disciples came to point out to him the buildings of the
temple. But he answered them, “You see all these, do you not? Truly, I say to
you, there will not be left here one stone upon another that will not be thrown
down.”
Matthew 24:34
Truly I tell you, this generation
will not pass away until all these things have taken place.
Jesus foretells the destruction of the temple as a climactic
event in this generation, which occurred in 70 CE.
5. The End of the Age Linked
with the Temple’s Destruction
Hebrews 9:8-10
...the first tent is still
standing; this is a symbol of the present time... imposed until the time comes
to set things right.
This links the old covenant and temple system to a temporary
order awaiting replacement.
6. The Destruction of Jerusalem was the Fulfillment of
Prophetic Warnings
Luke 21:20-22
When you see Jerusalem surrounded
by armies, then know that its desolation has come near... For these are days of
vengeance, as a fulfillment of all that is written.
Jesus ties the destruction of Jerusalem to the fulfillment
of prophecy, signaling the conclusion of the age and covenantal system.
7. The End of the Age is the
End of the Jewish Covenant World
Hebrews 1:1, 2
Long ago God spoke to our
ancestors in many and various ways by the prophets, but in these last days he
has spoken to us by a Son...
1 Corinthians 10:11
These things happened to them as examples and were written
down as warnings for us, on whom the culmination of the ages has come.
The scriptures from Abraham
forward are primarily focused on Israel, its people, its purpose, its preservation,
and demise. The last days, the end of time, were Jewish events not global.
The author of Hebrews wrote to Jewish believers saying that
God spoke through prophets to their ancestors, but to them God he spoke through
his son. To which he added, “He
is the reflection of God's glory and the exact imprint of God's very being…”
The apostle John claimed that Jesus was “the Word.” God spoke to the disciples
after Peter suggested making three tents, one for Jesus, one for Moses and one
for Elija; “This is my Son, the Beloved; with him I am well pleased; listen to
him!” Luke records “it was in Antioch that the disciples were first called
Christians,” the designation comes from a Greek word meaning “Anointed
One – Christos” and “a Latin
suffix ianos meaning belonging to or adherent of.” Jesus did not teach
any institutional form of worship connected to his kingdom.
The
Way:
In the Hebrew Scriptures,
“The way” (דֶּרֶךְ – derek) is often used to describe
the path of life, obedience, or covenant loyalty:
“For the LORD knows the way of the righteous, but the way of
the wicked will perish.” Psalm 1:6
“Walk in that the LORD your God has commanded you.” Deuteronomy
5:33
Use in Second Temple Judaism,
Qumran Community (Dead Sea Scrolls): The Essenes referred to
their strict lifestyle as the "Way"—emphasizing separation from
impurity and adherence to the Law. For example:
“...to prepare the way in the
wilderness...” Isaiah 40:3 was applied to their community mission in the Manual
of Discipline. Dead Sea Scrolls 1QS 8.14–16.
Use in Early Christianity,
“The Way” became a formal title for the early Jesus
movement:
Saul sought to arrest those “belonging to the Way.” Acts 9:2
“The Way” was used to describe the followers of Jesus before
the term “Christian” became widespread. Acts 19:9, 23; 22:4; 24:14, 22.
The term “the Way” was a descriptive designation, it reflected
a life focused on Jesus. People of “The Way” believed that Jesus was the
promised son of Davied and the Messiah. They practiced principles taught by
Jesus, a life demonstrated by the first believers who devoted themselves to the apostles' teaching to
fellowship, to the breaking of bread and prayer, those who believed and had all things in common.
My Ekklesia:
οἰκοδομήσω (I will build) LXX
Literal sense: to build a house (from οἶκος = house +
δέμω = to build or construct).
Its use in the LXX: often refers to building a people,
nation, or spiritual house not a physical structure.
Jeremiah 24:6 – καὶ οἰκοδομήσω αὐτοὺς καὶ οὐ κατασκέψομαι,
“I will build them up and not pull them down” — referring to restoring Israel.
2 Samuel 7:13 – David’s descendant “shall build a house for
my name.” This has Messianic implications and links housebuilding with kingdom
establishment.
In Matthew 16:18, Jesus is not just building a structure he
is founding a spiritual community grounded on faith and revelation, using a
term from Israel’s restoration language in the LXX.
ἐκκλησίαν (assembly/congregation)
From ἐκ (out of) + καλέω (to call) = “those called out.”
In classical Greek, ἐκκλησία referred to the assembly of
free citizens called to deliberate public matters.
In the LXX, it translates the Hebrew קָהָל (qahal) meaning
the gathered community of Israel.
Deuteronomy 9:10 – “the day of the assembly” (τῇ ἡμέρᾳ τῆς ἐκκλησίας)
— referring to Israel at Sinai.
Psalm 21:23 (LXX 21:23) – “I will praise you in the midst of
the ἐκκλησία” — the community of worshipers.
This context shows that ἐκκλησία already carried deep
covenantal meaning: it was not a secular assembly, but a people gathered before
God under His covenant.
I will build my ἐκκλησία
Using ἐκκλησία in the covenantal sense known from the LXX —
the assembly of the faithful.
Marking this as “my” ἐκκλησία — indicating a new, Messianic
people of God, not defined by ethnicity or temple structures but by confession
and faith.
Amos 9:11 (LXX) – “In that day I will raise up the fallen
tent of David...” (cf. Acts 15:16). The Messianic restoration was expected to
rebuild the people of God — now Jesus claims He Himself will do this. Signifies
Jesus founding his community rooted in grace. Shifts from national Israel to a
spiritual assembly that fulfills the covenant promises.
The first covenant
“Now
therefore, if you obey my voice and keep my covenant, you shall be my treasured
possession (סְגֻלָּה/segullah) out of all the peoples. Indeed, the whole earth
is mine, but you shall be for me a kingdom of priests and a holy nation.” Exodus
19:5, 6
·
Conditional Covenant: “If you obey… and keep my covenant” introduces a conditional promise.
Israel’s identity as God’s special people is contingent on faithfulness.
·
Treasured Possession (סְגֻלָּה): A term used for the private, guarded treasure of a king,
Israel would be uniquely valued among all nations.
·
Priestly Kingdom: The entire nation was to mediate between God and the world, serving
as representatives of divine wisdom and justice.
·
Holy Nation:
Distinct, set apart by moral and ceremonial purity, representing God's
character on earth.
·
Universal Ownership: God’s choice of Israel is not due to Israel’s exclusive ownership by
God, but despite the fact that “the whole earth is mine.” Israel is chosen for
a purpose among the nations.
The new covenant
“But you
are a chosen race, a royal priesthood, a holy nation, God’s own people (λαὸς εἰς
περιποίησιν), so that you may proclaim the mighty acts of him who called you
out of darkness into his marvellous light.” 1Peter 2:9
·
Covenant of grace
·
Chosen Race
(γένος ἐκλεκτόν): Echoes Israel’s election, now applied to the followers of
Jesus. This term generalizes election beyond ethnic Israel to a multi-ethnic
group defined by faith.
·
Royal Priesthood (βασίλειον ἱεράτευμα): Taken directly from Exodus 19:6 (LXX),
affirming the priestly calling of all believers, not just a class of clergy.
·
Holy Nation
(ἔθνος ἅγιον): Set apart for God’s purposes—mirroring Israel’s calling.
·
God’s Own People (λαὸς εἰς περιποίησιν): Literally, a “people for acquisition” or “for
possession”, echoing the Hebrew
segullah. The community belongs to God by divine choice and purpose.
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Exodus 19:5–6
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1 Peter 2:9
|
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"Treasured possession" (segullah)
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"People for possession" (laos eis peripoiēsin)
|
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"Kingdom of priests"
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"Royal priesthood"
|
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"Holy nation"
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"Holy nation"
|
|
Spoken to ethnic Israel
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Applied to Christ-followers (Jew and Gentile)
|
|
Conditional ("if you obey")
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Affirmed reality based on God's grace
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The kingdom of Israel, the kingdom of God
Kingdom of Israel:
·
At
its inception was a Theocracy.
·
Became a monarchy under Saul, then David and
Solomon (1 Samuel 8–10).
·
Physical territory of Canaan.
·
After
Saul, David and his family ruled the kingdom of Israel.
·
A
material temple and animal sacrifices.
David
then perceived that the LORD had established him king over Israel, and that he
had exalted his kingdom for the sake of his people Israel. 2Sa 5:12
Kingdom of God (Jesus' Kingdom)
- Pre-existent
and eternal (Ps 103:19; Dan 2:44; Luke 1:33).
- Prophesied
- “When your days are
fulfilled and you lie down with your ancestors, I will raise up your
offspring after you, who shall come forth from your body, and I will
establish his kingdom. He shall build a house for my name, and I will
establish the throne of his kingdom for ever.” 2Sa 7:12, 13
- A
spiritual kingdom – “My
kingdom is not from this world.” “You say that I am a king. For this I was
born, and for this I came into the world…” Joh 18:36, 37
- A
kingdom without end – “…the
eternal kingdom of our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ…” 2Pe 1:11
- Believers are the temple of
God. 1Co 3:16 Jesus was the ultimate sacrifice. Eph 5:2, Heb 9:26, 1Jn
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Kingdom of Israel
|
Kingdom of God (Jesus'
Kingdom)
|
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Basis
|
The Mount
Sinai Covenant
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New
Covenant in Christ
|
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Location
|
Land of
Canaan
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Spiritual
(John 18:36)
|
|
Entry
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Birth
into Israel
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Born from
above (John 3:3)
|
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Leadership
|
Kings,
priests, prophets
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Jesus the
King and High Priest
|
|
Law
|
The Law
of Moses
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Grace
|
|
Duration
|
Temporal
|
Eternal
|
Fulfillment
in scripture
Addressing
Jews after Pentecost, Peter stated that the time of universal restoration was
at hand “…all the prophets, as many as have spoken, from Samuel and those after
him, also predicted these days. You are the descendants of the prophets and of
the covenant that God gave to your ancestors, saying to Abraham, ‘And in your
descendants all the families of the earth shall be blessed.’” God used Israel
to reconciled humanity to himself. The people of Israel were active participants
in God’s plan. In the last days of Israel God completed his plan of redemption.
The final event closing God’s relationship with Israel was the destruction of
the temple. Soon after that Jesus’ returned completing the transfer from the
old covenant to the new covenant, from the earthly kingdom to the spiritual
kingdom.
The
scriptures are records of God’s interaction with people. Through the scriptures
God reveals his love. God’s plan was initiated and finalized. The time when God
related to people through law and regulations ceased. The nation of Israel as
God’s people ended with the destruction of Jerusalem. God’s spiritual
relationship with Israel ended with the destructions of the temple. Jews are
not God’s people, Churches do not represent God’s family. The scriptures were
closed with the destruction of the temple. The new covenant took over from the
first. Access to the new covenant is through Jesus of Nazareth. No laws, no
institutions, no ceremonies apply in the new covenant relationship with God. Believers
are children of God. Our duty as believers is to love God, and love our
neighbour. We are the children of Abraham, living by faith.
There
is no difference between Judaism of the first century and churches ever since.
…the
Pharisees and the scribes asked him, 'Why do your disciples not live according
to the tradition of the elders, but eat with defiled hands?' He said to
them, 'Isaiah prophesied rightly about you hypocrites, as it is written,
"This people honours me with their lips, but their hearts are far from
me; in vain do they worship me, teaching human precepts as doctrines. Mar
7:5-7
…the
promise that he would inherit the world did not come to Abraham or to his
descendants through the law but through
the righteousness of faith. Rom 4:13
…we know
that a person is justified not by the works of the law but through faith in
Jesus Christ. And we have come to believe in Christ Jesus, so that we might be
justified by faith in Christ, and not by doing the works of the law, because no one will be justified
by the works of the law. Gal 2:16
…all who
rely on the works of the law are under
a curse; for it is written, 'Cursed is everyone who does not observe and obey
all the things written in the book of the law.' Now it is evident that no
one is justified before God by the law;
for 'The one who is righteous will live by faith.' Gal 3:10, 11
You who
want to be justified by the law have
cut yourselves off from Christ; you have fallen away from grace. Gal 5:4
…if you
are led by the Spirit, you are not subject to the
law. Gal 5:18
To Jews
law would have been interpreted as the Law of Moses hence the occasional use of
the definite article. Paul referred to the Law of Moses, but mostly to law in a
generic sense. The Pharisees added their traditions as law. Church doctrines,
rituals, and practices are the same as the rules of the Pharisees.
The Law
of Moses was given exclusively to Israel at Sinai. The rest of the world was
not under the Law of Moses. Paul reasoned that if non-Jewish people
instinctively did what the Law of Moses required they were a law to themselves.
For
by grace you have been saved through faith, and this is not your own doing; it
is the gift of God—not the result of works, so that no one may boast. Eph 2:8,
9
If
with Christ you died to the elemental spirits of the universe, why do you live
as if you still belonged to the world? Why do you submit to
regulations, 'Do not handle, Do not taste, Do not touch'? All these
regulations refer to things that perish with use; they are simply human
commands and teachings. These have indeed an appearance of wisdom in
promoting self-imposed piety, humility, and severe treatment of the body, but
they are of no value in checking self-indulgence. Col 2:20-23
I
regard everything as loss because of the surpassing value of knowing Christ
Jesus my Lord. For his sake I have suffered the loss of all things, and I
regard them as rubbish, in order that I may gain Christ and be found in
him, not having a righteousness of my own that comes from the law, but one that comes through faith in Christ, the
righteousness from God based on faith. Php 3:8, 9
It is
time we as believers recognize that our relationship with God is through faith.
There is nothing we can do to earn salvation, it is God’s gift through the
sacrifice of Jesus. In grace there is no law.
